Oil Yield Research Articles

Effect of Mineral Fertilizer on Yield, Quality and Nutrient Uptake of Black Sesame [Sesamum radiatum (L.)]

A field study aimed to evolve efficient nutrient management for improving yield and quality of sesamum was conducted during pre-rabi season of 2022. The experiment was laid out in a factorial randomized block design replicated thrice with twelve treatments. Treatments consisting of two levels of nitrogen (25 and 50 kg/ha), two levels of phosphorus (12.5 and 25 kg/ha) and three levels of sulphur (0, 20 and 30 kg/ha). Seed and stover yield as well as total nutrient uptake were recorded significantly higher with the application of 50 kg/ha N, 25 kg/ha P and 30 kg/ha S. The application of 50 N and 30 kg S was recorded significantly higher oil content and oil yield over the rest of the nitrogen and sulphur levels. N content in seed (3.13%) and stover (1.226%) were found significantly influenced by 50 kg/ha N. Phosphorus @ 25 kg/ha was recorded significantly higher P content in seed (0.493 %) and stover (0.392%).S content in seed (0.325%) and stover (0.171%) were found significantly influenced by 50 kg/ha S. Significantly higher available nitrogen (281.22 kg/ha) was found under application of nitrogen @ 50 kg/ha. Significantly the higher residual phosphorus (28.81 kg/ha) was obtained with the application of 25 kg P/ha. Significantly the higher residual sulphur (7.63 mg/kg) was obtained with the application of 30 kg S/ha.

A Study on the Hydro-Liquefaction Kinetics of Shengli Lignite during the Heating-Up and Isothermal Stages under Mild Conditions

Studying the hydro-liquefaction kinetics of lignite contributes to optimizing the mild liquefaction process for lignite. In this paper, the direct liquefaction performance of Shengli lignite (SL) was investigated using a H2/THN system with 4 MPa of initial pressure, and reaction kinetic models were established for the heating-up stage and the isothermal stage. The result showed that the liquefaction performance of the SL was excellent, with a conversion of 62.18% and an oil and gas (O + G) yield of 29.88% at 698.15 K. After one hour of reaction, the conversion and O + G yield were 94.61% and 76.78%, respectively. During the heating-up stage, the easily reactive part of the SL was 50.07%, and it was converted directly into oil, gas, asphaltene (AS), and preasphaltene (PA) simultaneously. There was no significant secondary hydrogenation conversion of the AS and PA products. During the isothermal stage, the hard-to-react part was predominantly converted into AS and PA, while the remaining easily reactive part continue to react completely. The conversion of AS and PA into oil and gas was a rate-controlling step during this stage. The amount of unreacted coal estimated using the model calculated in the isothermal stage was 2.98%, which was significantly consistent with the experimental value of 2.81%.

Effect of environmental conditions and seasons on the growth, yield, and essential oil composition of Foeniculum vulgare L.

Foeniculum vulgare (Fennel) oils have an essential function in the food and therapeutic industries. The study’s purpose was to describe how different environmental circumstances and locations in Egypt affected the fennel oil yields and compositions. To assess the growth, yield, and essential oil constituents of F. vulgare at four differing agro-ecological regions in Egypt (El-Minia Governorate, Bahariya Oasis, El-Sharkia Governorate, and Aswan Governorate) at two different planting dates, in-field study was performed throughout the seasons 2019/2020 and 2020/2021. According to the data, there are highly significant differences between locations and sowing dates; the second date (15th November) is the best date for planting fennel plants. Plants grown in the Bahariya Oasis location had the maximum oil yield in mL/plant and L/acre, whereas the Aswan location had the highest percentage of EO. Eight EO samples underwent GC-MS analysis and chemometric analysis, including principal component analysis (PCA) and agglomerative hierarchical clustering (AHC), yielding identification of a total of 22 compounds. EOs from plants grown in various environments varied significantly in terms of their chemical composition, mainly components‘ concentrations. The main components were identified as estragole (66.62-89.73%), D-limonene (5.76-17.04%), and fenchone (2.02-9.23%). In samples gathered on November 15, 2020-2021, at the Bahariya Sekem Farm, anethole was found at a high concentration (12.79%), despite the compound’s absence or minimal presence in the other EOs. According to the current study findings, modulation of the cultivation and ecological circumstances can be used for the improvement of funnel EO.

A simulation‐guided tri‐spiral condenser design for enhancing lemongrass essential oil recovery

AbstractWe present a groundbreaking achievement in essential oil extraction, showcasing the development of a highly efficient tri‐spiral condenser for use in microwave‐assisted extraction (MAE) setups. This innovative condenser is specifically designed to swiftly cool vapors, optimizing oil yield during the MAE process. Our investigations demonstrate a notable improvement in oil purity, attributed to the expedited condensation facilitated by the tri‐spiral design. Traditional heat exchangers, like the Liebig condenser, fall short in efficiently handling the high vapor production rates of MAE. In response to this challenge, our tri‐spiral condenser design enhances condensation speed, resulting in a remarkable 12.2% increase in oil yield compared with the Liebig condenser (2.1% with tri‐spiral vs. 1.87% with Liebig), as validated by Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry. Beyond elevating oil purity, our design holds promise for diverse applications requiring rapid cooling. This work not only advances laboratory practices but also contributes to the broader societal need for efficient and sustainable methods in the essential oil extraction industry.Practical applicationsThe innovative tri‐spiral condenser design, as elucidated in this article, presents significant practical applications, especially in the realm of lemongrass essential oil recovery. This breakthrough technology holds promise for the fragrance and cosmetics industries, where lemongrass essential oil is a valuable ingredient. The novel condenser design enhances extraction efficiency, leading to a higher concentration of essential oil with improved aromatic compounds. Cosmetic manufacturers can benefit from a more potent and fragrant lemongrass oil for skincare and aromatherapy products. Additionally, the pharmaceutical sector could leverage this advancement for developing therapeutic products harnessing the medicinal properties of lemongrass. By optimizing essential oil recovery, the tri‐spiral condenser design not only caters to the needs of the fragrance, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries, but also aligns with a broader trend towards sustainable and efficient manufacturing practices, ensuring the accessibility of high‐quality lemongrass essential oil for diverse applications.

The Management of Irrigation and Potassium Fertilization to Mitigate the Effect of Light Frosts on the Phenolic and Volatile Compounds in Virgin Olive Oils

The frequency of early frosts has increased in recent years, which are injurious to olive growing, causing losses in the yield and quality of virgin olive oil. In this research, it was studied how the management of agronomic factors mitigates frost damage in Arbequina olives, minimizing the loss of phenols and volatiles in virgin olive oil, at different fruit ripening stages. A Box–Behnken design and multivariate analysis were performed, with three levels of irrigation, potassium fertilization, and foliar copper application (15 treatments). Virgin olive oil was extracted from fresh and frozen olives. Light frost caused a significant decrease in the total phenols and secoiridoid compounds in and the antioxidant capacity of the frost-affected oils, which were perceived as more pungent and had the slight defect of “frostbitten olives”. According to the Box–Behnken design, an 86% reference evapotranspiration (ET0) or higher with 100 potassium oxide units (UK2O) and a 100% ET0 or higher with 250 UK2O would be required to minimize the effect of light frost on phenols and volatiles. Partial Least Squares Regression–Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA) differentiated the virgin olive oils according to their ripening stage and fresh and frost conditions. Moreover, PLS-DA positively correlated a 75–100% ET0 and 0 Uk2O with the dialdehydic form of the decarboxymethyl ligstroside aglycone (p-HPEA-EDA), the dialdehydic form of the decarboxymethyl oleuropein aglycone (3,4-DHPEA-EDA), the dialdehydic form of the ligstroside aglycone (p-HPEA-EDA-DLA), and with fruity, pungent, and bitter attributes. Precision agronomic management based on the needs of the crop itself would avoid unnecessary stress on olive trees and oil damage.

Experimental and numerical investigation on the pyrolysis of oil shale particles in a bubbling fluidized bed

The efficient utilization of oil shale resource is beneficial to environment and the resource diversity. In this work, a bubbling fluidized bed (BFB) reactor was first used to pyrolyze Huadian oil shale experimentally, mainly focusing on the influence of fluidization flow rates. The yield of shale oil, char and non-condensable gas varies little at different fluidization flow rates, but the components in shale oil are different due to the secondary cracking, such as the fractions and species of aliphatic hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons and non-hydrocarbons. Then, the dense discrete phase model (DDPM) was used to track the trajectories of oil shale particles with different diameters in a bubbling fluidized bed. Population balance model (PBM) coupled Eulerian model was used to well describe the bubbling status of bed materials to characterize the hydrodynamic behaviors. Furthermore, a segmented kinetic model was compiled by UDF module to illuminate the pyrolysis of oil shale particles. The multi-phase reactive flow modeling clearly indicated the distribution of oil shale particles and gaseous products in BFB reactor, as well as pyrolysis time and the secondary cracking at different fluidization flow rates. In summary, this work provides a reference basis for complete pyrolysis of oil shale particles in a bubbling fluidized bed and generating shale oil with high yield and good quality.

Water Deficit Severity during the Preceding Year Determines Plant Tolerance to Subsequent Year Drought Stress Challenges: A Case Study in Damask Rose

Damask rose is an important essential oil crop. In the present study, plants were subjected to three different water deficit levels (70, 40, and 10% available water content) for two periods (June–October). Plant phenology, growth, essential oil yield, gas exchange features, membrane stability and major antioxidant defense elements were monitored across two years. Soil water deficit was related to quicker completion of the growth cycle (up to 7.4 d), and smaller plants (up to 49.7%). Under these conditions, biomass accumulation was jointly constrained by decreased leaf area, chlorophyll content, CO2 intake, and photosynthetic efficiency (up to 82.8, 56.9, 27.3 and 68.2%, respectively). The decrease in CO2 intake was driven by a reduction in stomatal conductance (up to 41.2%), while the decrease in leaf area was mediated by reductions in both number of leaves, and individual leaf area (up to 54.3, and 64.0%, respectively). Although the reactive oxygen species scavenging system was activated (i.e., proline accumulation, and enhanced activity of three antioxidant enzymes) by water deficit, oxidative stress symptoms were still apparent. These effects were amplified, as soil water deficit became more intense. Notably, the adverse effects of water deficit were generally less pronounced when plants had been exposed to water severity during the preceding year. Therefore, exposure to water deficit elicited plant tolerance to future exposure. This phenotypic response was further dependent on the water deficit level. At more intense soil water deficit across the preceding year, plants were less vulnerable to water deficit during the subsequent one. Therefore, our results reveal a direct link between water deficit severity and plant tolerance to future water stress challenges, providing for the first time evidence for stress memory in damask rose.

Optimizing niger seed (Guizotia abyssinica) oil quality: A comprehensive analysis of infrared-heat induced changes in bioactive profile, physiochemical attributes, and oxidative stability.

Infrared heating (IRH) at 140, 160, and 180°C for varying durations (5, 10, and 15min) was employed for improving the niger (Guizotia abyssinica) seed oil (NSO) quality for diverse food applications. The study explored changes in phenolic profile, oxidative stability index (OSI), tocopherols, phytosterols, fatty acid profiles, and physicochemical attributes of NSO. Upon IRH at 180°C for 10min, the oil yield, total phenolic, and flavonoid contents increased from 33.09% to 40.56%, 6.67 to 173.62mgGAE/kg, and 24.76 to 120.64mgQE/kg, respectively. The viscosity, chlorophylls, carotenoids, radical scavenging activity, OSI, caffeic, protocatechuic, vanillic, and syringic acids were highest upon IRH at 180°C for 15min. The tocopherols and phytosterols initially augmented while decremented upon raising IRH conditions. The infrared spectra indicated no adverse impact of IRH on NSO quality. The appropriate IRH conditions can be considered for improving NSO quality and making it valuable for various edible products.

Application of the Surface Regression Technique for Enhancing the Input Factors and Responses for Processing Coconut Oil under Vertical Compression

This study optimized the input processing factors, namely compression force, pressing speed, heating temperature, and heating time, for extracting oil from desiccated coconut medium using a vertical compression process by applying a maximum load of 100 kN. The samples’ pressing height of 100 mm was measured using a vessel chamber of diameter 60 mm with a plunger. The Box–Behnken design was used to generate the factors’ combinations of 27 experimental runs with each input factor set at three levels. The response surface regression technique was used to determine the optimum input factors of the calculated responses: oil yield (%), oil expression efficiency (%), and energy (J). The optimum factors’ levels were the compression force 65 kN, pressing speed 5 mm min−1, heating temperature 80 °C, and heating time 52.5 min. The predicted values of the responses were 48.48%, 78.35%, and 749.58 J. These values were validated based on additional experiments producing 48.18 ± 0.45%, 77.86 ± 0.72%, and 731.36 ± 8.04 J. The percentage error values between the experimental and the predicted values ranged from 0.82 ± 0.65 to 2.43 ± 1.07%, confirming the suitability of the established regression models for estimating the responses.

EXTRACTION, OPTIMIZATION AND QUALITY CHARACTERIZATION OF OIL FROM HASS AVOCADO (PERSEA AMERICANA) VARIETY GROWN IN ETHIOPIA (WONDOGENET)

The purpose of this research was to extract, optimize and characterizethe qualityof oil from Hass avocado variety which is grown in Wondogenet, Ethiopia. Oil was extracted from Hass avocado pulp using soxhlet and ultrasonic extraction and some process parameter for optimization were carried out. Hass avocado is rich in fat (22.80±0.00%). The effects of three factors (particle size, solvent to sample ratio and extraction time) on the oil yield were considered. The optimum extraction conditions for soxhlet extraction were found to be at 8 h reaction time, particle size of 1.4mm and solvent to solid ratio of 20:1 with a maximum yield of 69.7%, while the optimum extraction conditions for ultrasonic extraction were found at 1.5 h reaction time, particle size of 2mm and solvent to solid ratio of 15:1 with a maximum percentage yield of 67.2%. The analyses of the oil characteristics demonstrated that the oil extracted by soxhlet extraction shows lower PV, FFA, MVM and Alkalinity than oil extracted using Ultrasonic extraction. The results of fatty acid profile displayed that the oleic and linoleic acid contents of the soxhlet extracted oil were higher than that of the Ultrasonic extracted oil while palmitic and butanoic acid were higher in ultrasound extracted oil. Generally, ultrasound assisted extraction showed a promising oil yield regarding short extraction time and low solvent consumption but its oil quality is lower than that of soxhlet extracted oil.

Bioactive Profiling, Antibacterial Efficacy and Computational Modelling of Myrtus Communis Essential Oil (Morocco).

In the context of investigations into molecules of natural origin with biological activities. This study focuses on the development of Myrtus communis L., a medicinal plant found in the mountains of Morocco. The first, an analysis carried out on leaves using the inductively coupled plasma spectrometry technique, showed the almost total absence of heavy metals. Furthermore, we aim to identify the chemical composition of its essential oils by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis and assess its antibacterial efficacy in vitro and in silico. The average yield of essential oils was 0.9 %±0.06, and GC/MS analysis identified 35 constituents, with myrcene (27,38 %), limonene (16,51 %), α-pinene (7,32 %) being the major compounds. Remarkably, the essential oils displayed considerable antibacterial activity against various tested bacteria, including Escherichia coli (0.7 μL/mL), Escherichia pseudocoloides (2.8 μl/ml), Escherichia vekanda (2.8 μl/ml). Molecular docking has contributed to our understanding of the mechanism of antibacterial action of the main compounds in this essential oil.

Optimization of cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale) oil extraction yield by the enzymatic method

This study aimed to extract as much cashew oil as possible by enzymatic means, an environmentally friendly method. To achieve this, cashew almond paste was reacted with the enzyme alcalase 2.4 L, taking into account the matrix provided by a Box-Behnken design. The factors highlighted were those of enzyme concentration, incubation temperature, incubation time, pH ratio of the medium, and substrate/water. These factors were optimized to obtain the maximum cashew oil yield. The results showed that the alcalase 2.4 L enzyme optimized the cashew oil yield. The optimum yield (38.20 %) was achieved with an enzyme concentration of 2.5 %, a temperature of 60 °C, an incubation time of 8 h, a pH of 8 and a substrate/water ratio of 1:5. Thus, enzymatic extraction using alcalase 2.4 L can be considered an effective extraction method for obtaining oil from cashew nuts.

A New Revolutionary Green Technology for the Extraction of Essential Oil Using Microwave and Ultrasound-assisted Techniques

Background: Essential oils are utilized in various food applications and are a rich source of naturally occurring volatile components. The extraction of essential oils has used conventional techniques for several years, but these methods require a long duration of time, more solvent, and high energy. However, recent advancements have led to novel and eco-friendly techniques that significantly enhance the essential oil yield while minimizing the use of resources. Method: This study describes the recent research on the extraction of essential oils and their components, focusing on microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE). Result: This review explores the instrumentation, mechanism, and applications behind MAE and UAE. It also describes the emerging technologies for the extraction of essential oils, along with their optimized conditions. Conclusion: These techniques represent a more sustainable and efficient approach for the extraction of essential oil from various plant sources, aligning with the principles of green chemistry.

Variation in Fruit Traits and Seed Nutrient Compositions of Wild Camellia oleifera: Implications for Camellia oleifera Domestication

Camellia oleifera is a woody oil crop with the highest oil yield and the largest cultivation area in China, and C. oleifera seed oil is a high-quality edible oil recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The objectives of this study were to investigate the variation in fruit yield traits and seed chemical compositions of wild C. oleifera in China and to identify the differences between wild C. oleifera and cultivated varieties. In this study, we collected wild C. oleifera samples from 13 sites covering the main distribution areas of wild C. oleifera to comprehensively evaluate 25 quantitative traits of wild C. oleifera fruit and seed chemical compositions and collected data of 10 quantitative traits from 434 cultivated varieties for a comparative analysis of the differences between wild and cultivars. The results showed that the coefficients of variation of the 25 quantitative traits of wild C. oleifera ranged from 2.605% to 156.641%, with an average of 38.569%. The phenotypic differentiation coefficients ranged from 25.003% to 99.911%, with an average of 77.894%. The Shannon–Wiener index (H’) ranged from 0.195 to 1.681. Based on the results of principal component analysis (PCA) and phenotypic differentiation coefficients, 10 traits differed significantly between wild C. oleifera and cultivated varieties, while the differentiation coefficients (VST) for fresh fruit weight, oleic acid, unsaturated fatty acids, stearic acid, and saturated fatty acids were more than 95%, of which fresh fruit weight and oleic acid content were potential domestication traits of C. oleifera. The results of this study can contribute to the efficient excavation and utilization of wild C. oleifera genetic resources for C. oleifera breeding.

Enhancement of light hydrocarbon production from polypropylene waste by HZSM-11-catalyzed pyrolysis

Herein, a mixture of real polypropylene (PP) waste was pyrolyzed with a HZSM-11 catalyst as a potential method to recover light hydrocarbons (C ≤ 12), the potential feedstock for value-added chemicals and fuels, from polyolefin plastic waste. Using the HZSM-11 in the PP waste mixture pyrolysis noticeably improved the yield of gas pyrolysate and oil in compensation for the yield of wax (i.e. hydrocarbons of C > 20) and solid residue particularly at a higher temperature. In addition, the selectivity of C3–C12 in the PP-waste mixture-derived pyrolysate was markedly increased by the HZSM-11. The highest yield of light hydrocarbons was ≈40 wt% (per mass of the feedstock) achieved at 700 °C with the HZSM-11 catalyst. Despite 7.9 wt% coke deposition on the HZSM-11 after its use in the pyrolysis of the PP waste mixture, the catalyst could be reusable for at least three times after regeneration. The experimental results demonstrate that HZSM-11 has the potential for being a promising catalyst to valorize polyolefin waste into value-added chemicals.

Microalgal-bacterial treatment of ice-cream wastewater to remove organic waste and harvest oil-rich biomass.

The diversity of microalgae and bacteria allows them to form beneficial consortia for efficient wastewater treatment and nutrient recovery. This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of a new microalgal-bacterial combination in the treatment of ice cream wastewater for biomass harvest. The bacterium Novosphingobium sp. ICW1 was natively isolated from icecream wastewater and the microalga Vischeria sp. WL1 was a terrestrial oil-producing strain of Eustigmatophyceae. The ice cream wastewater was diluted 4 folds for co-cultivation, which was relatively less inhibitory for the growth of Vischeria sp. WL1. Four initial algal-bacterial combinations (v:v) of 150:0 (single algal cultivation), 150:1, 150:2, and 150:4 were assessed. During 24days of co-cultivation, algal pigmentation was dynamically changed, particularly at the algal-bacterial combination of 150:4. Algal growth (in terms of cell number) was slightly promoted during the late phase of co-cultivation at the combinations of 150:2 and 150:4, while in the former the cellular oil yield was obviously elevated. Treated by these algal-bacterial combinations, total carbon was reduced by 67.5 ~ 74.5% and chemical oxygen demand was reduced by 55.0 ~ 60.4%. Although single bacterial treatment was still effective for removing organic nutrients, the removal efficiency was obviously enhanced at the algal-bacterial combination of 150:4. In addition, the harvested oils contained 87.1 ~ 88.3% monounsaturated fatty acids. In general, this study enriches the biotechnological solutions for the sustainable treatment of organic matter-rich food wastewater.

Aviation fuel hydrocarbons from camphorwood and low-density polyethylene: Cascade catalytic approach with CaO and Zn/HBeta

In this study, the co-pyrolysis of camphorwood and low-density polyethylene employing a cascade catalyst system consisting of CaO and Zn-modified HBeta in a fixed-bed reactor was investigated for the production of aviation fuel hydrocarbons (C8–C16). The effect of Zn loading on HBeta, CaO to Zn/HBeta mass ratio, and the feedstock to catalyst mass ratio on both oil yield and composition was investigated. Results revealed that loading Zn onto HBeta led to ZnO cluster and oxygen-bridged Zn dimers ([ZnOZn]2+) formation, which affects HBeta's acid properties and aromatization capacity. The 10 wt%Zn/HBeta catalyst with more ZnO content exhibited weak acid sites, and moderate aromatization capacity, increasing oil yield from 32.06 to 44.25 wt% compared to 3 wt%Zn/HBeta and favoring presence of straight-chain components in oil products. CaO also enhanced straight-chain alkane formation. The highest oil yield, reaching 48.44 wt%, was obtained when CaO and 10 wt%Zn/HBeta cascade by a 1:1 mass ratio was adopted, producing oil with aviation fuel with a maximum yield of 18.45 wt%, and selectivity of 38.09 area%, of which 26.54 area% being aromatics and 11.55 area% being alkanes. Furthermore, the feedstock-to-catalyst ratio influenced the products significantly, with lower feedstock-to-catalyst ratio enhanced aromatization and the ratio of 2:1 recommended. Therefore, this cascade catalytic approach, which combines cost-effective CaO and 10 wt%Zn/HBeta catalysts shows significant potential for enhancing bio-aviation fuel production from solid wastes. Moreover, it provides a viable and promising solution for addressing concerns related to low oil yield and excessive aromatization.

A ReLU-based linearization approach for maximizing oil production in subsea platforms: An application to flow splitting

Oil and gas extraction from subsea reservoirs is a complex process that is highly reliant on accurate mathematical modeling for optimization. A key challenge is identifying control settings to maximize oil production while accounting for the nonlinear behavior and constraints of the underlying physical systems. This paper introduces a new method using Rectified Linear Units (ReLU) neural networks to model these complexities. We focus on a subsea system connecting multiple oil wells to a manifold with multiple headers, explicitly modeling flow splitting to optimize oil yield. Our approach employs mixed-integer reformulations of ReLU neural networks to approximate pressure-drop functions in risers, allowing efficient optimization of production platforms considering routing possibility and flow-splitting operations. Computational analysis employing a branch-and-cut approach and p-split partitioning (for the ReLU model) shows that our ReLU-based methodology converges faster than standard piecewise-linear (PWL) approaches while delivering comparably effective results. Notably, ReLU found solutions in scenarios where PWL failed to find an incumbent solution within the time limit. These results underscore a significant advancement in the optimization of offshore production platforms by using ReLU-based models.

Development of Sustainable Biofuel from Seed Waste Using Pyrolysis and Its Sustainability in the Compression Ignition Engine Application

In recent decades, conventional diesel engines have faced serious challenges due to the depletion of fossil fuel sources. The current research investigates the feasibility of using waste Acacia nilotica (AN) seed pyrolysis oil as fuel in diesel engines. The pyrolysis investigations were carried out in a batch-type reactor at temperatures ranging from 400 °C to 650 °C, a heating rate of 10 °C/min, and feedstock sizes ranging from 0.2 to 1.7 mm. The maximum oil yield of 49% was obtained at 500 °C with an optimum particle size of 0.5 mm. The characterization of bio-oil was estimated with the help of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1HNMR), and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. FTIR analysis detected aliphatic functional groups in bio-oil. GC-MS analysis determined phenolic, acetic, and cresol compounds in pyrolysis oil. Bio-oil contains 64.78% aliphatic hydrocarbons (HC), according to 1HNMR. Blends of AN and diesel were studied in diesel engines to investigate engine parameters, and the findings were compared to standard diesel. Under full load conditions, the efficiency of the AN10 (10% AN seed pyrolysis oil + 90% diesel) blend was discovered to be 32.8%, which is 2.3% lower than normal diesel, and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and smoke emissions were low. The findings confirmed that up to 30% of the AN blend can substitute for diesel in compression ignition (CI) engine applications.

Physico-Chemical Properties of Locally Processed Shea Butter (<i>Vitellaria paradoxa</i>) from Parts of Niger State, Nigeria

The suitability of shea butter as a dietary fat is greatly influenced by its physicochemical parameters as well as fatty acid composition.  Thus, the present study was conducted to assess the physicochemical and fatty acid composition of shea butter sampled from three  vegetational zones; Zone A (Agaie and Lapai Local Government Areas Coordinates) Zone B (Suleja and Gurara Local Government Areas) Zone C (Kontagora and Magama Local Government Areas in Niger State. The physicochemical parameters which include; colour,  moisture, pH, oil yield, acid value, peroxide and saponification were analyzed according to standard methods. Results obtained showed  that the colour of the shea butter from the 3 zones were orange/yellow. Moisture content ranged between 2.07±0.21 and 2.40±0.21; pH  values ranged between 5.27±0.14 and 5.34±0.14; Oil yield ranged from 52.76±4.27 and 56.12±4.27; Acid values ranged from 2.47±2.61 to  3.77±2.61. Saponification ranged between 183.51±0.09 and 193.57±0.09; Peroxide values ranged between 0.54±0.38 and 1.04±0.38  respectively. There were significant and non-significant differences in the values of all the physicochemical parameters sampled from the  3 zones (p<0.05). Fatty acid composition revealed that the values of Oleic, linoleic, palmitic and arachidic ranged between 48.65±1.23 and  52.78±0.74; 7.24±1.21 and 8.30±1.30; 6.43±0.24 and 7.35±1.26; 0.63±0.11 and 0.84±0.08 respectively. The parameters assessed compared  favourably with the reports from previous studies, indicating that the shea butter could serve as a source of food to the rural dwellers.